1. The Glorious Qur'an, translation and commentary by A. Yusuf Ali (USA: American Trust Publications, 1987), Sura II: Baqara, Verse 256, p. 103.
2. Rahmaton lil a'lamin, or "Mercy for the Worlds," is a popular Muslim reference to Prophet Muhammad.
3. "Al-Islam huwal-hal" ("Islam Is the Solution") was a ubiquitous slogan of Algerian fundamentalists.
4. The People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran (Sazeman-e Mojahedin-e Khalq-e Iran) was founded on September 6, 1965, by Muhammad Hanifnejad and two other like-minded intellectuals, Sa'id Mohsen and Ali-Asghar Badi'zadegan. Islamic, democratic, and nationalist, the Mojahedin were at the forefront of the anti-shah movement which resulted in the 1979 revolution.
5. Daniel Pipes, In the Path of God (New York: Basic Books, 1983), p. 65.
6. Ali ibn Abi Taleb, Nahj ol-Balagha, translation and commentary by Haj Alinaqi Faizol-Islam (Tehran: Faizol-Islam Publications,1972), sermon 40, pp.125-126.
7. Richard P. Mitchel, The Society of Muslim Brothers (London: 1969), p. 32.
8. H. A. R. Gibb, Civilization of Islam, pp. 142-143.
9. Ibn Taymiyeh (Taqi od-Din Abu al-Abbas Ahmad), Menhaj as-Sunna an-Nabawya (The Ways and Traditions of the Prophet), First Volume (Cairo: 1962), p.371.
10.Bernard Lewis, "Politics and War," in The Legacy of Islam, 2d ed., ed. Joseph Schacht and C. E. Bosworth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1974), p. 163.
11. A. P. Petroshevsky, Eslam Dar Iran (Islam in Iran), (Tehran: Marvi Publishing, 1975(
12.Hamilton A. R. Gibb, "Religion and Politics in Christianity and Islam," in Islam and International Relations, ed. J. Harris Proctor (London: Pall Mall, 1965), p.10.
13. Abu Bakr Al-Baghlani, Al-Tamheed, p. 186.
14.Al-Rasa'il (Letters), Third Volume, Political Philosophy of Ikhwan as-Safa (Brethren of Purity), series of articles on Islamic thought (Tehran: 1977), pp. 25-49.
15.Morteza Ravandi, Tarikh-e-Ejtema'iy-e Iran (Social History of Iran) , Third Volume (Tehran: 1978), p. 512.
16.Hassan Ayat, Chehreye Vaghei-ye Mossadeq ol-Saltaneh (The True Visage of Mossadeq ol-Saltaneh) (Qom: Islamic Publications, 1981), p.3.
17.Ibid., p. 20.
18. Ayatollah Seyyed Mahmoud Taleqani was a long-time activist against the shah and a highly respected religious leader. His endeavors in defense of the people's fundamental rights began against the oppressive rule of the shah's father, Reza shah, in the 1930s. He was a staunch supporter of Iran's nationalist leader, Dr. Muhammad Mossadeq. Between the coup that ousted Mossadeq in August 1953 and the 1979 revolution, Taleqani was active in the anti-shah movement and was arrested and tortured on several occasions by the SAVAK. Soon after the fall of the shah, relations between Taleqani and the ruling mullahs soured. He passed away on September 10, 1979, at the age of 69.
19.Al- Kawakibi, Tabaye' ol-Istibdad (Characteristics of Despotism), (Tehran: 1905), p.12.
20.Ibid., p. 22.
21. Ibid., p. 182.
1. Ressalat, Tehran, 7 January 1988. (See Appendix.(
2. Ruhollah Moussavi Khomeini, Velayat-e-faqih (Najaf: 1971), p. 63.
3. Khamenei Friday prayer sermon, Tehran radio, 1 January 1988.
4. Ressalat, Tehran, 7 January 1988.
5. Khomeini, op. cit., p. 65.
6. Associated Press, dispatch from Paris, 7 November 1978.
7. United Press International, dispatch from Paris, 8 November 1978.
8. Massoud Rajavi is the leader of the Iranian Resistance. He joined the Mojahedin in 1966, soon becoming a member of the organization's Leadership Committee. Until 1971, when he was arrested by the shah's secret police (SAVAK), Rajavi served along with the Mojahedin's founder, Hanifnejad, formulating the organization's ideological perspectives and course of action. When the Mojahedin's leaders were sentenced to death by a shah's military tribunal, Rajavi's sentence was commuted to life imprisonment due to international pressure. Professor Kazem Rajavi, Massoud's elder brother, who was assassinated in Geneva in April 1990, played a major role in organizing a worldwide campaign to save Massoud Rajavi's life. Rajavi remained in prison until 1979 and was among the last group of political prisoners released a week after the shah fled the country. From the beginning, Rajavi emphasized that the new regime must respect the people's fundamental rights. Under his leadership, the Mojahedin emerged as the focal point of the democratic opposition to Khomeini. In June 1981, Rajavi organized the nationwide Resistance and in July 1981 formed the National Council of Resistance in Tehran. Rajavi left Tehran for Paris in July 1981, on board an Iranian Air Force Boeing jet piloted by veteran air force officers sympathetic to the Mojahedin, to enlist international support for the political alternative to clerical rule. In June 1986, Rajavi left France for Iraq to form the National Liberation Army of Iran, the Resistance's military arm.
9. Immediately following the demonstration, the regime began widespread arrests of the protesters or anyone suspected of being a Mojahedin sympathizer. As dusk fell, hundreds of detainees were sent before the firing squads in summary fashion in Evin and other prisons. In the first week after June 20, government media reported the execution of more than 700 people. Some were shot even without their identities being established. The regime printed the victims' pictures in Tehran dailies, asking the parents of those executed to go to prisons to identify their children. (See Appendix.(
10.In 1979, under Khomeini's auspices, Muhammad-Hussein Beheshti, Ali-Akbar Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Ali Khamenei, and Hassan Ayat founded the Islamic Republic Party. The IRP gradually monopolized power within the regime. Beheshti became the Party's Secretary General and was replaced by Khamenei after he was killed in June 1981. On June 2, 1987, upon Khomeini's personal order, the IRP was dissolved "to avoid further factionalization within the government."
11.Mehdi Bazargan, head of Nehzat-e Azadi-e Iran (Iran's Freedom Movement), was Khomeini's hand-picked premier for the provisional government following the overthrow of the shah. His government collapsed after the American Embassy takeover in Tehran in November 1979. Despite Bazargan's endorsement of the clerics' policies, the Rafsanjani administration banned his movement from engaging in any activity.
12.Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Qom: Center for Islamic Publications, 1979), p. 9.
13.Ibid.,p.17.
14.Ressalat, Tehran, 15 August 1988.
15.Ressalat, Tehran, 20 August 1988.
16.Ressalat, Tehran, 18 August 1988.
17.Ressalat, Tehran, 13 November 1988.
1. Hashemi-Rafsanjani Friday prayer sermon, Tehran radio, 10 October 1991.
2. On March 28, 1989, Khomeini officially ousted Montazeri as his would-be successor. Montazeri, who was chosen as Khomeini's heir apparent in 1985, had expressed a different opinion on Khomeini's order for massacre of political prisoners following the cease-fire in the Iran-Iraq War in summer 1988. Khomeini relegated Montazeri to the position of preacher in the Qom's theological school.
3. Hussein-Ali Montazeri's confidential letters to judicial officials, 15 August 1988, and to Khomeini, 31 July 1988. Copies of the letters were obtained by the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran. (See Appendix.(
4. Ahmad Azari-Qomi, Ressalat, Tehran, 5 June 1989.
5. Abolqassem Khaz'ali interview, in Ressalat, Tehran, 5 June 1989.
6. Tehran radio, 25 June 1989.
7. Tehran radio, 14 February 1992.
8. Shabestari interview, in Ressalat, Tehran, 24 February 1992.
9. Raja'i-Khorassani interview, in Ressalat, Tehran, 8 January 1992.
10.Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, including the revisions made by the Council for Constitutional Revision (Tehran: 1989(
11.Reuters, dispatch from Istanbul, Turkey, 1 May 1992.
12.Tehran radio, 3 August 1989.
13.Muhammad-Hussein Beheshti, president of the Supreme Judicial Council, was killed in June 1981. At the time, his power was second only to Khomeini's.
14. Representatives of the International Committee of the Red Cross were reported in March 1992 to have been expelled from Iran. Neither the regime nor the Red Cross officials concealed the fact that the reason for a halt to the Red Cross's activities in Iran was the emergence of "sensitive" problems and issues with regard to the political prisoners. The decision for expulsion of the Red Cross was made in a meeting of the Supreme National Security Council headed by Rafsanjani. Afterward, Muhammad Yazdi, head of the judiciary, accused the Red Cross of espionage, and the state-run newspapers launched a smear campaign against the ICRC.
15.Anushiravan Ehteshami, "The Structure of Power in Post-Khomeini Iran" (unpublished paper, January 1991), p.18.
1. Larijani interview, in Ressalat, Tehran, 7 August 1989.
2. Larijani interview, in Ressalat, Tehran, 2 August 1989.
3. Larijani interview, in Ressalat, Tehran, 29 July 1989.
4. The roundtable discussion was attended by Muhammad Khatami, Muhammad Javad Larijani, and Morteza Nabavi, the editor of Ressalat newspaper and former minister of post, telegraph, and telephone. Excerpts of this discussion appeared in a two-page article in Ressalat, Tehran, 2 August 1991.
5. Ressalat, Tehran, 7 July 1991.
6. Rafsanjani made these remarks while addressing the Global Hizbullah Conference in Tehran, Tehran radio, 22 May 1990.
7. Ressalat, Tehran, 8 January 1992.
8. Ressalat, Tehran, 7 July 1991.
9. Gerald Seib, "Iran Is Re-Emerging as a Mideast Power as Iraqi Threat Fades," Wall Street Journal, 18 March 1992.
10.Ressalat, Tehran, 7 July 1991.
11.Manouchehr Muhammadi, Principles of Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Tehran: Amirkabir Publishing House, 1987), p. 37.
1. Kayhan, Tehran, 11 January 1992.
2. Tehran radio, 14 December 1991.
3. A classified policy paper prepared by experts of the Iranian government's Supreme National Security Council in January 1991. A copy of the paper was obtained by the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran.
4. Ernest Gellner, Muslim Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981), p.99.
5. Muhammad Hanifnejad is the founder of the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran. An agricultural engineer, Hanifnejad was born in 1938 in Tabriz, capital of the northwestern province of East Azerbaijan. As a Muslim intellectual, he had been politically active against the shah's dictatorship and was imprisoned in 1963. After his release, he founded the Mojahedin in 1965 based on Islamic ideology and nationalist policies. From 1965 until 1971, he concentrated on expanding the organizational network across Iran and formulating the movement's ideology, tactics, and strategy. In September 1971, the shah's dreaded secret police, SAVAK, arrested the organization's leaders, including Hanifnejad. After months of brutal tortures, all but one of the members of the Leadership Committee, Massoud Rajavi, were executed. Hanifnejad was executed on May 25, 1972.
6. Daniel Pipes, In the Path of God (New York: Basic Books, 1983), p. 284.
7. Hassan Pirnia and Abbas Iqbal Ashtiani, Tarikh-e Iran (History of Iran), 3rd ed. (Tehran: Kayyam Publishing House, 1973), p. 51.
8. Ibid, p. 223.
9. The four Shi'ite source books written in the ninth and tenth centuries on Hadith are Kafi (Sufficient) by Kolayni, Tahzib (Purification) and Estebsar (Quest for Knowledge) by Sheikh-e Toussi, and Man La Yahzor ol-Faqih (In the Absence of a Jurist) by Sheikh-e Sadouq. The six Sunni source books on Hadith are Sonan-e Nessa'i (Traditions of Nessa' i) by Nessa'i, Sahih-e Moslem (The Book of Moslem) by Moslem-e Hajjaj, Jame'-e Tarmazi (Complete Works of Tarmazi) by Tarmazi, Sahih-e Bukhari (The Book of Bukhari) by Bukhari, Sonan-e ibn Majeh (Traditions of ibn Majeh) by Ibn Majeh, and Sonan-e Abi Davood (Traditions of Abi Davood) by Abi Davood. These were also written in the ninth and tenth centuries.
10.Associated Press, dispatch from Washington, 25 February 1992, quoting an official of the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran.
11.The New York Times, 29 April 1982.
12.British Petroleum Statistical Review of World Energy (1991(
13.This issue was frequently raised during discussions on the future of the Central Asian republics. But many analysts believe the difference carries particularly less weight in the former Soviet republics. For example, Paul Goble, a former U.S. State Department expert on the Soviet nationalities, noted that the distinction is a lot less relevant among Soviet Muslims. (The Washington Post, 2 February 1992). The view is commonly shared by the general public in these republics: A militant in the Uzbek city of Namangan told Time magazine: "It doesn't matter that they are Shi'ite over there and we are Sunni. The Ayatollah made Iran strong and glorious, while in Sunni Turkey they have weakened Islam." (Time, 20 April 1992(
14.Hamid Enayat, Tafakkor-e Novin-e Siassi Dar Islam (Modem Islamic Political Thought) (Tehran: Amirkabir Publishing House, 1983), p. 20.
15.Khomeini's message on the founding of the Islamic Republic Party of Iran, Kayhan, Tehran, 3 April 1979.
16.Tehran mullahs have followed the same course after Khomeini's death. Anis Mansour, a famous Egyptian journalist, wrote in Al Ahram in January 1992: "He lies to himself and to all the people who says that [Khomeini] was an Iranian. He is ignorant who says: 'How does this concern us? Those are problems that relate to the Shi'ah sect and we are Sunnis.'"
17.The Glorious Qur'an, translation and commentary by A. Yusuf Ali (USA: American Trust Publications, 1987), Sura IV: Nisaa, Verse 59, p. 198.
1. Jack Anderson and Dale Van Atta, "Iran's Spurious Holy War," The Washington Post,5 October 1986.
2. Confidential policy paper on the Iran-Iraq War, prepared by the ruling Islamic Republic Party. A copy was obtained by the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran. In January 1983, the movement published excerpts of this document in its Farsi-language organ, Mojahed.
3. Kayhan, Tehran, 27 September 1980.
4. Bamdad, Tehran, 14 April 1980.
5. Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 9 August 1980.
6. This map, produced by the Guards Corps during the Iran-Iraq War, was extensively distributed among the G.C. Staff at the war fronts. It encompasses Tehran's plans to establish an Islamic empire by using Iraq as a springboard for this strategy. A copy of the map was obtained by the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran. (See Appendix.(
7. In 1983, the Mojahedin initiated an extensive domestic and international campaign to discredit Khomeini's war effort. This was subsequent to a peace meeting between Massoud Rajavi and Tariq Aziz, then deputy prime minister of Iraq, at Rajavi's Paris headquarters on January 9, 1983. Rajavi proposed a peace plan in March of that year, which Iraq accepted as a suitable basis for a negotiated settlement of the conflict. The peace plan was endorsed by more than 10,000 parties, dignitaries, and political personalities from 70 countries around the world.
8. The National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCR) was founded by Massoud Rajavi in July 1981 in Tehran. It is a coalition of democratic Iranian opposition organizations and personalities, representing a broad spectrum of different political views within Iran. In its nine-day session in December 1992, the NCR expanded to 150 members and it was agreed that it will act as the National Legislative Assembly for the transition period after the mullahs' overthrow.
9. Hashemi-Rafsanjani Friday prayer sermon, Tehran radio, 9 August 1991.
10.For instance, invalids took part in a major antigovernment demonstration on April 16, 1992, in the southern city of Shiraz, the capital of Fars Province) Reuters, dispatch from Tehran, 16 April 1992(
11.Khomeini had warned repeatedly against peace and its consequences for the regime, a view also shared by senior Iranian officials. On August 7, 1986, in a message addressed to Iranians who had gathered in Mecca for the hajj pilgrimage, Khomeini said: "Those who talk of peace are traitors to Islam and the interest of Muslims. Peace with these criminals has at all times resulted in the dishonor of Islam and the Muslim countries. For us, compromise and an imposed peace have a meaning worse than war." In light of such background, he described his forced acceptance of the cease-fire in July 1988 as "drinking a chalice of poison."
12.Al-Jumhuriya, Baghdad, 20 January 1992. Muhammad Hamzah Az-Zubaidi, the Iraqi prime minister, reiterated the same point during an interview with the Iraqi national television in January 1992. As the minister of transportation and communications, he was a member of an Iraqi delegation which visited Iran on several occasions during the Persian Gulf crisis.
13.The formation of the National Liberation Army of Iran, the military arm of the Iranian Resistance, was announced on June 20, 1987, by Massoud Rajavi, its commander in chief. This all-volunteer army, which is based along the Iran-Iraq frontier, has evolved from an infantry force to a full-fledged armored army with tank, mechanized infantry, artillery, air defense and air assault units, communications and combat engineering units. The NLA's largest offensive was the Eternal Light Operation. In summer 1988,35 NLA brigades thrust 170 kilometers inside Iran to the gates of the western provincial capital of Kermanshah. The NLA inflicted 55,000 casualties on the enemy's forces.
14.In the wake of the Persian Gulf War, the Tehran regime took advantage of the circumstances and launched major offensives in March and April 1991 to destroy the NLA. Although the National Liberation Army deployed only one-fifth of its forces in these defensive battles, it crushed the mullahs' 25,ooo-strong force. Thousands were killed, a number captured, and the rest routed. Forty-three NLA combatants were killed during the battles, code-named Operation Pearl.
1. Ali Khamenei, Tehran radio, 4 April 1992.
2. Bruce Clark and Anatol Lieven, "US, Turkey and Iran Chase Power in Central Asia," Times, London, 17 February 1992.
3. Editorial, Ressalat, Tehran, 29 December 1991.
4. Richard Curtis, "Iranian Opposition Leader Charges Rafsanjani Regime Backing Algeria," The Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, April 1992.
5. Claude Van England, "Iran Concerned with Independence Movement," Christian Science Monitor, 23 September 1991.
6. Martin Sieff, "Iran Seeks Global Power for Islamic Nations," The Washington Times, 17 February 1992.
7. Ahmad Khomeini speech to bassij forces, Kayhan, Tehran, 11 January 1992.
8. Graham Fuller interview, Voice of America, 27 January 1992.
9. Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 29 December 1991.
10.Roger Boyes, "Islam Stokes the Regional Ember," Times, London, 11 January 1992.
11.Internal document of the Iranian government, a copy of which was obtained by the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran.
12.The Economist wrote on February 29, 1992, "The newly founded Caspian Council (which links Iran, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, and Russia) is an open attempt to cut Turkey out and bolster the region against the plotting of America through the Turks."
13. Tehran radio, 9 February 1992.
14.Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 17 December 1991.
15.Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 22 October 1991.
16.Jane Kokan, "Mullahs Tussle for Soviet Hearts," Sunday Times, 1 March 1992. To that effect, Foreign Report, on February 20, 1992, reported that construction of a 185-mile railway between the holy city of Mashad in Iran and the northern half of Sarakhs in Turkmenistan has begun. President Niyazov said he is giving priority to establishing regular flights and direct telephone links between Ashkhabad and Tehran.
17.Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 24 November 1991.
18. Iranian Foreign Ministry confidential policy paper (Tehran: April 1992). A copu op the paper was obtained by the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran.
19.British Broadcasting Corporation, Persian Service, 26 January 1992.
20.The People's Mojahedin Organization obtained a copy of the communication intercepts.
21.Tehran radio, 24 April 1992.
22.Bei' at is the oath of allegiance that all believers should lend to the vali-e-faqih.
23.Jannati Friday prayer sermon, Tehran radio, 8 May 1992.
24.News of this type was repeatedly reported by the Iranian media: "Hojjatolislam Mazari, the President of Leadership Council of the Islamic Coalition Council of Afghanistan, entered Kabul amid cheers of Allah-o-Akbar [God is Great]" (Tehran radio, 11 May 1992); or "Hojjatolislam Mansouri, Leader of the Islamic Coalition Council of Afghanistan, was welcomed by thousands of residents and dignitaries of the city of Mazar Sharif' (Tehran radio, 7 May 1992(.
25.Hashemi-Rafsanjani speech in Ferdows city (Khorassan Province), Tehran radio, 16 May 1992.
26.Shah-nameh, or the Book of Kings, written by one of Iran's most famous poets, Abolqassem Ferdowsi, at the beginning of the eleventh century, is one of the most widely read masterpieces of Persian literature. Shah-nameh contains between 35,000 and 60,000 verses in short rhyming couplets. It deals with the history of Iran from its beginnings.
27.Dostum interview, Tehran radio, 13 May 1992.
28.Ibid.
29.Ettela'at, Tehran, 7 August 1991.
30.Mazari interview, Tehran radio, 13 May 1992.
31.Reuters, 9 May 1992.
32.Tehran radio, 7 May 1992.
33.Foreign Report, 30 April 1992.
34.Tom Post and Melinda Liu, "The Great Game, Chapter Two," Newsweek, 3 February1992.
35.According to The Guardian of 18 March 1992, the president of the Democratic Party of Tadzhikistan stressed that "we want close relations [with Iran]. Our historical destiny was linked to Persia and will be."
36.Voice of America, Farsi Service, 9 May 1992.
37.Voice of America, Farsi Service, 13 February 1992.
38.Voice of America, Farsi Service, 9 May 1992.
39."Mosque as Carapace," The Economist, London, 29 February 1992.
40.Ibid.
41.According to the Sunday Telegraph of 1 March 1992, as the euphoria of the Turkish family reunion starts to die down, the ability of Turkey to compete with Iran has become an increasingly pressing question. A Western diplomat wondered, "How in the absence of the vast amounts of cash that Ankara's Iranian and Arab competitors have at their disposal, will Turkey be able to promote Western ideals effectively in these states?"
42.Rowland Evans and Roben Novak, "Ignoring Tehran's Threat," The Washington Post, 2 March 1992.
43.Kayhan, Tehran, 17 March 1992.
44.Reuters, dispatch from Ankara, 13 March 1992.
45.Henry Kissinger, CSPAN TV, USA, 28 February 1992.
46.Time magazine of April 20, 1992, reported a growing fear in the West that if democratic values fail to take root in Central Asia and the Caucasus, the whole southern rim of the old Soviet empire will inexorably slide into the embrace of Islamic fundamentalism.
47.In a commentary in The Washington Times on January 25, 1992, a Western observer noted that "an Iranian success in this endeavor is an alarming prospect. It inevitably would result in adverse repercussions for the West. The stability of Saudi Arabia and others in the Middle East would be threatened. Oil once more could become a weapon wielded against the West."
1. Tehran radio, 3 March 1991.
2. Kayhan Airmail, Tehran, 11 March 1992.
3. Ibid.
4. Al Watan Al Arabi, Paris, 25 October 1991.
5. Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 19 August 1991.
6. Tehran radio, 1 February 1992.
7. Michael Evans, "Jibril's Camps Moved to Iran," Times, London, 14 March 1992.
8. Al Watan Al Arabi, Paris, 25 August 1991.
9. Asharq Al Owsat, London, 13 October 1991.
10.Abd al-Salam Sid Ahmed, "Iran, Sudan and Algeria-A Setback in the Grand Plan?" Middle East International, London, 20 March 1992.
11.Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 20 June 1991.
12.Tehran radio, 15 January 1992.
13.Abrar, Tehran, 29 June 1991.
14.Tehran radio, 4 January 1992.
15.Independent, London, 1 January 1992.
16.Ian Black, Deborah Pugh, and Simon Tisdall, "Militant Islam's Saudi Paymasters," The Guardian, London, 29 February 1992.
17.Asharq Al Owsat, London, 23 March 1992.
18.Tom Post, Jeffrey Bartholet, and Carol Berger, "A New Alliance for Terror," Newsweek, 24 February 1992. The New York Times on January 20,1992, reported that, according to Tunisian officials, Rachid Al-Ghannouchi also travels with an Iranian diplomatic passport under the alias Muhammad Jamal Aouidh.
19. Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 31 March 1992.
20.Realities, Tunis, September 1991.
21.Christopher Walker, "Arab leaders Fight to Defuse Islamic Militant 'Time Bomb,'" Times, London, 15 January 1992.
22. Asharq Al Owsat, London, 23 January 1992. Meanwhile, The New York Times reported from Tunis on January 20, 1992, that Tunisian officials contended that Tunisian fundamentalists, with active support from the Iranians, tried to organize two armed uprisings and assassinate the president and five cabinet ministers. The plan, these officials assert, was thwarted by security officials last fall.
23.El-Moudjahid, Algiers, January 1992.
24.Tehran radio, 10 January 1992.
25.Abd al-Salam Sid Ahmed, "Tehran-Khartoum: A New Axis ora Warning Shot?" Middle East International, London, 7 February 1992.
26. Abd al-Salam Sid Ahmed, "Iran, Sudan, and Algeria-A Setback in the Grand Plan?" Middle East International, London, 20 March 1992.
27.Der Spiegel, Hamburg, 23 December 1991.
28.Ash-Shira, Beirut, January 1992.
29.Ibid.
30.Scott Peterson, "Sudan's Islamic Regime Cultivates Ties with Iran," Christian Science Monitor, 31 March 1992.
31.Agence France-Presse, 27 December 1991.
32. Al Ahram, Cairo, 10 February 1992.
33.David Ignatius, "U.S. Fears Sudan Becoming Terrorists' 'New Lebanon,'" The Washington Post, 31 January 1992.
34.Jennifer Parmelee, "Sudan Denies 'Khartoum-Tehran Axis' to Promote Islamic Regimes in Africa," The Washington Post, 12 March 1992. It has also been reported that Majid Kamal has been stationed in Khartoum since 1989, and in 1991 he was promoted from charge d'affaires to ambassador.
35.Al Osbou Al Arabi, Beirut, 18 May 1992.
36.Al-Ahram, Cairo, 10 February 1992.
37.Reuters, dispatch from Cairo, 10 February 1992.
38.Reuters, dispatch from Cairo, 16 January 1992.
39.Ignatius, op. cit.
40.Al Watan Al Arabi, Paris, 17 January 1992.
41.Christopher Walker, "Sudan's Link with Iran Alarms West," Times, London, 18 December 1991.
42.British Broadcasting Corporation, World Service, 2 February 1992.
43.Parmelee, op. cit.
44.Rafsanjani's office confidential document, Tehran, July 1991. A copy was obtained by the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran.
45.Moussa interview, in Al-Musawar, Cairo, 24 May 1992.
46.Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 26 August 1991.
47.Ressalat, Tehran, 23 May 1991.
48.Kayhan, Tehran, 3 October 1991.
49.British Broadcasting Corporation, World Service, 25 January 1992. The Times of London reported from Cairo on the same day that, according to Muhammad Abdel-Halim Moussa, the Egyptian interior minister, those arrested had infiltrated Egypt to agitate on streets and carry out terrorist attacks.
50.Al Akhbar, Cairo, 19 February 1992.
51.Reuters, dispatch from Cairo, 9 March 1992.
52.Al Ahram, Cairo, 9 March 1992.
53.Al Watan Al Arabi, London, 6 December 1991.
54.Ibid., 20 September 1991.
55.Kayhan, Tehran, 2 August 1987.
56.Reuters, dispatch from Washington, D.C., 25 February 1992.
57.Reuters, dispatch from Riyadh, 27 February 1992.
58.Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 21 January 1992.
59.Tehran radio, 12 July 1991.
60. Agence France-Presse, 15 July 1991.
61.Tehran radio, 18 June 1991.
1. Ettela'at, Tehran, 7 August 1991.
2. Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Tehran radio, 3 November 1992.
3. Moussavi interview, in Kayhan, Tehran, 21 February 1985.
4. Manoucher Muhammadi, Principles of the Foreign Policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran (Tehran: Amirkabir Publishing House, 1987), p.70.
5. Ibid.
6. Internal memorandum, Iranian government's Supreme National Security Council, March 1991. A copy of the memorandum was obtained by the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran.
7. Kayhan, Tehran, 21 December 1991.
8. Iranian television, 30 August 1992.
9. Internal document of the Qods Force, a copy of which was obtained by the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran.
10.Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12.Abrar, Tehran, 17 December 1991.
13.United Press International, dispatch from Ankara, 29 January 1993.
14.Internal document of the Qods Force, op. cit.
15.Internal report of the Qods Force, August 1991. A copy was obtained by the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran.
16.United Press International, dispatch from Ankara, 4 February 1993.
1. Hashemi-Rafsanjani Friday prayer sermon, Ettela'at, Tehran, 6 May 1989. (See Appendix. (
2. Letter from Mir-Hussein Moussavi to Khamenei, 6 September 1988. A copy of the letter was obtained by the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran. (See Appendix.(
3. In an interview with the French TF1 television, Lutfi stated: "They had more serious targets and planned to kill prominent personalities, including Jacques Chirac, Regis Debres, Laurent Fabius, and Jack Lang. They also had plans to blow up a nuclear center and had predicted that 10,000 would be killed."
4. The Washington Times quoted Western intelligence sources as saying that "Tehran convened an international conference in February 1992 involving 80 senior participants from 20 organizations involved in terrorism. Participating groups included Hizbullah from Lebanon, the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine General Command, the Tunisian Islamic Movement, Hizbullah of Kuwait, the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, the Liberation Front of Bahrain, the Islamic Revolutionary Organization of the Arabian Peninsula, the Organization for the Advancement of Shi'ite Ideology in Pakistan, the Patani Front of Thailand, the Radical Muslim Organization of the Philippines and the Revolutionary Muslim Movement of South Africa."
5. Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Friday prayer sermon, Tehran radio, 19 December 1986.
6. Ettela'at, Tehran, 7 November 1986.
7. Times, London, 9 August 1991.
8. During the 1986 hajj pilgrimage, a group of about 170 terrorists from the Guards Corps and other terrorist organs of the Khomeini regime were dispatched to Saudi Arabia in the guise of pilgrims. The group carried large quantities of arms as well as various explosive materials, such as TNT and plastic bombs. But soon after the group's arrival in the country, Saudi police discovered they were carrying weapons and ammunition and arrested more than 100 of them. After extensive efforts by Rafsanjani (then the majlis speaker), Mohsen Rezaii, the G.C. Commander in Chief, and Ali Nikan-Qomi (Tehran's former ambassador to Saudi Arabia), the arrested terrorists were released the next day.
9. On April 1, 1992, Reuters reported the German newspaper Die Rheinpfalz had learned through well-informed Lebanese sources that the attack was carried out "with the full approval and support of Iran." Die Rheinpfalz said that the bombing was planned at a secret conference in a Beirut Hotel December 24-26, 1991. The conference was led by Iranian representatives and attended by members of the radical Shi'ite Muslim groups. The paper added that the information was obtained from a "volunteer helper of the attack planners."
10.Reuters, dispatch from Washington, D.C., 7 May 1992.
11.Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Tehran radio, 4 November 1986. Rafsanjani made these remarks while addressing a rally on the seventh anniversary of the U.S. embassy takeover in Tehran in 1979.
12. Ressalat, Tehran, 20 July 1987. (See Appendix.(
13.Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 14 February 1992.
14.The New York Times, 2 November 1992.
15.Caryle Murphy, "Iranian Sees No Breakthrough in U.S. Ties," The Washington Post, 1 February 1993.
16.Tehran radio, 14 February 1993.
17.Hurriyet, Istanbul, 7 March 1990.
18.Reuters, dispatch from Beirut, 15 January 1992.
19.United Press International, dispatch from Ankara, 29 January 1993.
20.United Press International, dispatch from Geneva, 22 June 1990.
21.According to the press statement of the People's Mojahedin on July 16, 1989, Muhammad-Ja'far Sahrarudi was at the time commander of the Directorate of Operations of the Guards Corps 15th Corps, based at Ramadhan Headquarters near the western Iranian city of Kermanshah. According to the same statement he used a diplomatic passport and the pseudonym "Rahimi."
22. Stephen Kinzer, "Iran Kurdish leader Among 4 Killed in Berlin," The New York Times, 19 September 1992.
23.Reuters, dispatch from Bonn, 10 August 1992.
24.In 1986 when Hussein Mala'ek was appointed as the regime's ambassador to Berne, the U.S. Department of State protested the acceptance of his credentials by the Swiss government because of his involvement in hostage taking.
25.VEVAK (Vezarat-e Ettela'at Va Amniyat-e Keshvar) , Ministry of Intelligence and Security, previously known as SAVAMA, is in charge of state security and intelligence matters. The minister is Ali Fallahian. This organ was called SAVAK under the shah.
26.Die Welt reported in May 1992 that for the year 1991, Germany's exports to Iran were DM 6 billion ($3.6 billion.(
27.Khaneh Behdashte-Iran is located near Cologne. It is closely linked to the Union of Islamic Associations in Europe, and many of the latter's meetings are held there. Under the direct supervision of the Iranian Embassy in Bonn, it acts as a logistical support base for the regime's terrorist activities.
28.Located at 27 Rue Maurice Berteux, Paris, this center is a gathering place for joint activities of pro-Khomeini Shi'ite Arabs and Iranian agents. The center has direct contacts with the Iranian Embassy in Paris and the Muslim Students Association, a proregime student outfit.
29.Reuters, dispatch from Paris, 11 March 1992.
30.Reuters, dispatch from Ankara, 13 March 1992. The Turkish interior minister, Ismet Sezgin, in March 1992 stated that the Hizbullah, which "is an Iranian group, was aiming to destroy the Turkish state and break it up."
31.Jeff Kamen, "Terror Threat Carries Nuclear Cloud," Defense News, 24 February 1992.
32.As Dove Zakheim, an expert on the subject commented on the Voice of America radio on March 2, 1992, "They [Iranians] have supported terrorism, sponsored it when they thought it was worthwhile. There is no great evidence, regardless of what any individual Iranian leader, and that includes the president, might say, these people are not functioning on the same wavelength as the West is."
33.Caryle Murphy, "Questions Remain About New Image Touted by Iran," The Washington Post, 21 April 1992.
1. Kayhan, Tehran, 21 October 1991. (See Appendix.(
2. Abrar, Tehran, 20 October 1991.
3. Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 26 August 1991.
4. Kayhan, Tehran, 20 October 1991.
5. Kayhan Airmail, Tehran, 23 October 1991.
6. Hashemi-Rafsanjani, speech to the Conference to Support Palestine's Islamic Revolution in Tehran, Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 20 October 1991.
7. Kayhan, Tehran, 19 October 1991.
8. Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 3 December 1991.
9. Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 22 October 1991.
10.Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 20 October 1991.
11.Kayhan, Tehran, 21 October 1991.
12.Reuters, dispatch from Nicosia, 27 March 1992.
13.Kayhan, Tehran, 20 October 1991.
14.Iranian television, main evening news broadcast, 26 January 1993.
15.Caryle Murphy, "Iranian Sees No Breakthrough in U.S. Ties," The Washington Post, 1 February 1993.
1. Reuters, dispatch from Nicosia, 23 October 1991.
2. Suddeutsche Zeitung, Munich, 5 October 1991.
3. Tony Banks and James Bruce, "Iran Builds Its Strength," Jane's Defense Weekly , 1 February 1992.
4. Ibid.
5. Corriere della Serra, Milan, 13 January 1992.
6. Banks and Bruce, op. cit.
7. Ibid.
8. Associated Press, dispatch from Washington, D.C., 12 February 1992.
9. Sunday Telegraph, London, 1 June 1992.
10.Banks and Bruce, op. cit.
11.Eric Rosenberg, Defense Week, Washington, D.C., 13 January 1992.
12. Die Tageszeitung, Berlin, 5 January 1992.
13.Patrick Cockburn, "Russia Helps Iran Equip Its Warplanes from Iraq," Independent, London, 13 January 1992.
14.Associated Press, dispatch from Washington, D.C., 7 January 1992.
15.Cockburn, op. cit.
16.Arnold Beichman, "Arms and the Goals of Iran," The Washington Times, 1 March 1992.
17.Ibid.
18.Owen Ullmann, Knight-Ridder Newspapers, Washington, D.C., 11 February 1992.
19.Rowan Scarborough, "China to Boost Iran's Navy," The Washington Times, 22 April 1992.
20.Defense News, 17 February 1992.
21.Aviation Week, Washington, D.C., 9 November 1992.
22.Richard Sia and Mark Mathews, "Iran Buying Submarines to Control Gulf Entrance," (Baltimore) Sun, 5 February 1992.
23.Rosenberg, op. cit.
24.Middle East Economic Digest, London, 17 April 1992.
25.Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, "Baker's Chinese Friends," The Washington Post, 18 November 1991.
26.Der Spiegel, Hamburg, December 1991.
27.Rosenberg, op. cit.
28.Press conference by Alireza Jafarzadeh, U.S. spokesman for the People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran, in Washington, D.C., 5 February 1992.
29."Nuclear Journey," Issues, Paris, March 1992.
30.Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, "Beijing's Tehran Connection," The Washington Post, 26 June 1991.
31.Jim Mann, "Iran Determined to Get A- Bomb, U.S. Believes," Los Angeles Times, 17 March 1992.
32.Jafarzadeh, op. cit.
33.Reuters, dispatch from Brussels, 26 February 1992.
34. Reuters, dispatch from Nicosia, 28 November 1992.
35. Tehran radio, 14 February 1993.
36.The Hamburg-based Messerschmitt, Boelkow, Blohm Co. signed a "memorandum of understanding" with the Khomeini regime to issue licenses for the manufacture of TRANSALL cargo planes and to build a center in Iran for their maintenance in December 1985 at the height of the Iran-Iraq War. The bid was for the Khomeini regime to buy 12 military TRANSALL C-160 aircraft valued at $424 million.
37. Agence France-Presse, dispatch from Cyprus, 16 November 1991.
38.Rowland Evans and Robert Novak, "Baker's Chinese Friends," The Washington Post, 18 November 1991.
39.Le Monde, 2 January 1992.
40.David Hoffman, "Iran's Rebuilding Seen as Challenge to West," The Washington Post, 2 February 1992.
41. "Fear of Flying," Newsweek, 17 February 1992.
1. Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Tehran radio, 28 May 1992. He made these remarks in the opening session of the Fourth Majlis.
2. Andrew Borowiec, "Iran's Nuclear Effort, Arms Buys Trigger Concerns," The Washington Times, 8 February 1992.
3. Report on the Human Rights Situation in the Islamic Republic of Iran by the Special Representative of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, Reynaldo Galindo Pohl, pursuant to the Commission resolution 1991/82, E/ CN.4/1992/34, 2 January 1992, pp. 77-89.
4. Ibid., p. 90, par. 474.
5. Press communique by Judge Roland Chatelain, 20 June 1990.
6. United Nations General Assembly Resolution, A/C.3/47/L.76, 2 December 1992.
7. Salam, Tehran, 18 October 1991.
8. Ali Avazzadeh, majlis deputy from Shirvan, Ettela'at, Tehran, 6 January 1992.
9. Ettela'at Political-Economic Survey, Tehran, October 1989.
10.Salam, Tehran, 1 May 1991.
11.Salam, Tehran, 18 October 1991.
12.Le Monde, 21 June 1991.
13.Kayhan, Tehran, 27 July 1991.
14.Le Monde, 21 June 1991.
15.Seyyed Reza Nourizadeh, majlis deputy from Asfarayen, Ressalat, Tehran,12 June 1991.
16.Mostafa Mo'azenzadeh, majlis deputy from Kerman, Ressalat, Tehran, 15 January 1992.
17.Tehran radio, 4 and 29 April1992.
18.Kayhan, Tehran, 8 October 1989.
19.Associated Press, dispatch from the United Nations, New York, 31 December 1991.
20.Jassem Jaderi, majlis deputy from Dasht-e-Azadegan, Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 14 November 1991.
21.Associated Press, dispatch from the United Nations, New York, 31 December 1991.
22.Reuters, dispatch from Nicosia, 16 April 1992.
23.Associated Press, dispatch from Nicosia, 25 May 1992.
24.Reuters, dispatch from Tehran, 2 June 1992.
25.Several factors explain the mullahs' failure to quell the mounting public protests. While the deteriorating economic situation, pervasive poverty, and the denial of the most basic social and individual rights of citizens are the underlying causes of continuing unrest, another essential factor in fomenting these protests is the crucial role of the Mojahedin's network across the country. Through this nationwide underground network, the Mojahedin's Command Headquarters inside Iran has distributed hundreds of thousands of antigovernment fliers, statements, and pamphlets. In addition, it has recruited many volunteers, some of whom eventually cross the border to join the National Liberation Army, the Resistance's military arm. Others are given the task of organizing acts of protest in different sectors of society. Videotapes about the NLA and cassette recordings of statements, messages, and interviews by the Resistance's leaders Massoud and Maryam Rajavi are also distributed by the network's members. In addition, the Mojahedin have made effective use of their daily nationwide radio broadcasts to offer direction and guidance to the citizenry, urging them to defy government clampdown. The success of the campaign has aroused grave concern among the ruling clerics, who have been compelled to publicly acknowledge the effectiveness of the Mojahedin in organizing the protests and their emboldening of the public. Nowhere was this more evident than during the majlis elections, when the clerical authorities, including Khamenei, lashed out at the Mojahedin's call for the election boycott during a speech in Mashad on April 4, 1992: "Through their radio broadcasts and publications, the Mojahedin are attempting to make these elections worthless. They do this to weaken the system politically, economically, and militarily."
26.The Economist, London, 13 June 1992.
27.Associated Press, dispatch from Tehran, 8 May 1992.
28.Jomhouri Islami, Tehran, 26 April 1992.
29.Associated Press, dispatch from Nicosia, 26 July 1992.
30.Associated Press, dispatch from Nicosia, 6 July 1992.
31.Hashemi-Rafsanjani, Friday prayer sermon, Tehran Radio, 17 July 1992.
32.Tehran Radio, 29 July 1992.
33.The New York Times, 12 October 1992.
34.Associated Press, dispatch from Nicosia, 15 October 1992.